I. Read and translate the following text about the Celts. Write our new words into our chat or into your notebook or quizlet.
Attention! 'Celts' is pronounced as [kelts] , although c+ e/i/y =[s]
Britain from about the sixth century b.c.e. can be categorized as an Iron Age culture.
Iron came relatively late to Britain compared to other parts of Europe, but the British were able to exploit their own iron mines.
The smith had a high status in British Iron Age culture, even being represented among the gods.
Iron ingots were used as currency, and the introduction of iron axes, combined with the need for fuel to smelt and forge iron, meant that deforestation continued more rapidly.
Bronze continued to be used quite widely, as it was cheaper than iron.
In the Iron Age, Britain came to be dominated by a group of people known in modern times as the Celts, who are a difficult group to define.
The term Celt was originally associated with peoples on the European continent, but there is little evidence of a common Celtic identity straddling the English Channel.
While older historians viewed the changes associated with Celtic culture in Britain as an invasion by Celtic peoples from the European continent, more recently historians and archaeologists have found British people selectively adopting certain cultural characteristics of Celtic peoples on their own accord.
The indigenous British aristocracy may have adopted Celtic ways as a means of distinguishing themselves from ordinary Britons.
The spread of cultural artifacts and styles we now call Celtic constitutes a significant aspect of the long transition from Bronze Age to Iron Age Britain.
However, this does not mean the people in Britain adopted a “Celtic” identity or even a “British” one.
No ancient writer refers to the British as Celts, and there is some evidence that the “Celtic” languages of Britain—Gaelic, Cornish, and Welsh—had roots far predating the Celtic period.
These languages, along with Breton and Irish, were only labeled Celtic in the 18th century.
There is no indication that the ancient Britons thought of themselves as Celts, although there were substantial cultural, political, and trade connections with France, referred to in ancient times as Gaul and inhabited by Celts among other peoples.
There is also no evidence of a “British” identity spanning the different peoples that lived in the island.
Iron Age Britain developed larger communities than there had been under the previous inhabitants, although there is no evidence of any island-wide organization or even anything on the scale of the later kingdoms of England and Scotland.
Britain was divided into many territories of smaller or larger tribes, with fluctuating boundaries.
Some of these tribes had a long-term influence on place-names—for example, the Cantiaci, after whom the county of Kent in the far south east is named.
These tribal groupings were very fluid and often only lasted for a few decades, a century, or just the lifespan of a powerful leader.
There were strong class divisions among the Britons, with a warrior aristocracy, some of whom may have been recent immigrants from the Continent, ruling over a peasantry that made up the majority of the population.
Early Britain had a warlike culture, and many of the artifacts that survive are related to war.
A common form of settlement was the hill fort, built on top of a hill to dominate surrounding territories.
Britons used chariots in battle, a form of warfare obsolete in the Mediterranean and even Gaul but still formidable in the more primitive British setting.
British armies also included cavalry, mounted on ponies, and infantry.
One custom for which British warriors became well known was painting themselves blue, using a substance known as woad, before going into battle.
The reason for this is not clear, but it may have had something to do with the display of individual valor.
Upper-class British men also made a point of displaying personal courage through hunting, although of course much hunting was carried out primarily for meat.
The spear, which economized on the use of metal, was a popular Celtic weapon.
This spear head from the Thames Valley area is decorated with bronze inlays.
Our knowledge of Iron Age British religion is fragmentary due to the lack of written sources.
The British were polytheists, worshipping a variety of local goddesses and gods and some whose cults covered a larger area.
They venerated animals associated with the gods, particularly horses and pigs, and plants, particularly oak and mistletoe.
They sacrificed animals, and sometimes humans, to their gods and goddesses.
An important feature of Iron Age British religion and culture was Druidism, something the British shared with the Celts of Gaul but not of Ireland.
Some classical Greek and Roman writers claimed that Druidism originated in Britain and that Druids from Gaul received training in Britain.
The Druids were a class of men who seem to have had certain exemptions from taxation and military service.
Being a Druid required skill and training.
Druids memorized an extensive orally transmitted poetic literature and had knowledge of herbs, medicinal plants, divining techniques, and religious ritual.
The Druids, many of whom inherited their profession, were political and intellectual leaders.
They settled disputes between British communities or, alternatively, participated in battle by calling down curses on the enemy.
Druids employed circles in their rituals and did use Stonehenge and other ancient stone constructions as ritual centers, but they preferred natural settings in the woods or at wells.
There were growing economic connections between the British and the classical Mediterranean world in the Iron Age.
Britain’s metal resources—including tin and copper (the components of bronze), as well as gold—attracted traders.
The earliest link between Britain and the Mediterranean economy was the Cornish tin trade, mainly through Phoenician traders based in Spain and ultimately in Carthage.
The Greeks followed the Phoenicians, and the Greek word for tin was derived from the Celtic word for Britain.
Britain also became known for its pearls.
One Greek navigator, Pytheas of Massilia, circumnavigated Britain in the fourth century, revealing to the Mediterranean peoples that Britain was an island.
When Britons first appeared in the written as opposed to the archaeological record it was not their own written record but that of the Mediterranean peoples—the Greeks and the Romans.
II. In the article, find English equivalents for Russian words and phrases below:
железные слитки = iron
плавить и ковать железо = to and iron
кочующий =
изменяющиеся границы =
классовое разделение =
воинственная культура = a culture
колесницы =
устаревший =
пехота =
обычай = a
копье= a
вставки из бронзы= bronze
дуб и омела [вечнозеленый кустарник]= and
естественная обстановка в лесу или у скважин= natural settings or
олово и медь= and
быть полученным из... = to be
обогнуть/совершить кругосветное плавание= to
Correct Answers: 0
Incorrect Answers: 0
Reload the page and practice again and again until you get all the words in green
III. Look into the text from Exercise I again and complete the following sentences with the words from the article:
British people are said to have adopted certain features of Celts on their own .
A typical form of settlement was the .
Cavalry, ponies, was a part of the British army.
British warriors are famous for painting themselves blue with a known as .
Perhaps the reason of British warriors painting themselves was the display of individual .
British people animals associated with gods.
The Druids seemed to have some from and military .
Correct Answers: 0
Incorrect Answers: 0
Reload the page and practice again and again until you get all the words in green
IV. Write answers to these Questions. Rephrase the sentences from the text in task I containing answers in your own way. Try to use Participles I, Passive voice instead of Active voice, Gerunds and synonyms of the words in the original text. Send in photos of your answers or write them in our chat.
During which century did Britain begin to be categorized as an Iron Age culture?
(Sentence 1)
What factors contributed to the rapid deforestation in Iron Age Britain?
(Sentence 4)
What was the social status of smiths in British Iron Age culture?
(Sentence 3)
Despite the introduction of iron, which material remained widely used in Britain and why?
(Sentence 5)
Which group became dominant in Britain during the Iron Age, and why are they considered difficult to define?
(Sentence 6)
How have recent historical perspectives on Celtic influence in Britain differed from older views?
(Sentence 8)
For what purpose might the indigenous British aristocracy have adopted Celtic cultural characteristics?
(Sentence 9)
What evidence suggests that ancient Britons did not identify themselves as Celts?
(Sentences 12 and 14)
What was a common form of settlement in Iron Age Britain, and what was its primary function?
(Sentence 22)
What was Druidism, and with which other group did the British share this cultural feature?
(Sentence 34)
V. Rephrase the following sentences using Participle I as an adverbial modifier.
Iron came relatively late to Britain compared to other parts of Europe, but the British were able to exploit their own iron mines. (as an adverbial modifier of concession)
Smelting and forging iron required timber as fuel, which led to more rapid deforestation (as an adverbial modifier of attending circumstances),
Bronze continued to be used quite widely, as it was cheaper than iron. ( as an adverbial modifier of reason)
The ancient Britons probably didn't consider themselves to be Celts, although they had substantial cultural, political, and trade connections with France, referred to in ancient times as Gaul. (an adverbial modifier of concession)
Chariots were Britons' favourite form of warfare, but they were considered to be obsolete in the Mediterranean and even Gaul. (as an adverbial modifier of concession/attendant circumstances)
VI. Make up the following conversation:
Imagine that you are the parents of a young man living in the 6th century BCE. Discussing the pros and cons, encourage him to get a job as an apprentice of a smith, explaining the advantages of the profession.
Use: debatable - On the one hand,... - On the other hand,... -This job is widely considered to be... - to be highly respected - not to know any poverty - to be in demand =пользоваться спросом - a secure bet - a demanding job - to toil all day - to take a toll on smb's health - to bring home bacon = to provide for one's family - to take orders from the military = принимать заказы от военных - to get preferential treatment =получать приоритетное обслуживание
Additional Balanced Phrases:
On the flip side: "On the flip side, the job demands a lot of physical endurance."
A double-edged sword: "It’s a double-edged sword: while it offers stability, it also requires constant physical effort."
Pros and cons: "We must weigh the pros and cons carefully before deciding."
A necessary trade-off: "There’s a necessary trade-off between financial security and physical strain."
Comes with its own challenges: "While the job is rewarding, it comes with its own challenges."
Long-term effects: "You must consider the long-term effects on your health and lifestyle."
Requires dedication: "It requires dedication and perseverance to master."
Hard-earned success: "The success you’ll achieve will be hard-earned but fulfilling."
VI. Write an essay on the following topic: What were the advantages and disadvantages of the job of a smith in the iron age?
VII. Write a summary of the article above using at least 5 words or phrases from the Exercises II and III. Use the introductory phrases from the list below:
1. Introductory paragraph
1.1. The article is dedicated to… [Write the general subject. For example, in this lesson it is the development of the Iron Age British peoples.]
- The focus of this article is placed on…
- Attention is drawn to…
- This article revolves around…
- The central theme of the article is…
1. 2. The author discusses …, …, and … [ Write a few sub-questions /aspects the author tackles upon. For example. in this case it can be 1. the way iron processing developed on the British Isles, 2. the Celtic culture, 3. the relations of the Britons with peoples on the Continent]
- A discussion is presented on …, …, and …
- The exploration of …, …, and … is carried out…
- Several key points regarding … are examined…
2. Body paragraphs,analysing how each of the aspectsis explored/studied/analysed/ discussed. Here some of the following introductory phrases can help:
2.1. Regarding / As for / Concerning / With regard to / Pertaining to + aspect N , the writer depicts / outlines the main features / characteristics of… / provides facts about… / tells the readers about… / speculates on…
- The main features of … are outlined…
- An outline of … is provided…
- The central characteristics of … are portrayed…
- Speculation concerning … is offered…
- Key facts regarding … are explored…
2.2. The author emphasises some issues / controversies, connected with… / points out that… / sheds the light on…
- Emphasis is placed on …
- Certain issues concerning … are highlighted…
- Light is shed on …
- It is pointed out that…
2.3. The author provides evidence of… / gives grounds for…
- Evidence is presented to support…
- Grounds for … are established…
- Justification for … is given…
2.4. First and foremost, … = Прежде всего, …
- Primarily, …
- At the forefront, …
